Table of Contents

Part I Introduction

1 Philosophical Foundations, Definitions, and Measures	5
1 Happiness Is Both a Philosophical and Psychological Concept	5
2 Happiness as a Strong and Universal Motive	6
3 Bentham Versus Aristotle	6
4 Three Philosophical Views of Happiness	7
4.1 Psychological Happiness (Hedonic or Emotional Well-Being)	7
4.2 Prudential Happiness (Life Satisfaction or the Cognitive Component of Subjective Well-Being)	13
4.3 Perfectionist Happiness (Eudaimonia or Psychological Well-Being)	18
5 Conclusion	23
References	23

2 Further Distinctions Among Major Subjective QOL Concepts	31
1 Subjective Versus Objective QOL	31
2 Inputs Versus Outcomes of QOL	33
3 Inner Versus Outer Aspects of QOL	34
4 Happiness Versus Life Satisfaction	35
5 Subjective Well-Being as an Umbrella Concept	36
5.1 Cognitive Versus Affective	38
5.2 Positive Versus Negative	39
5.3 Short Term Versus Long Term	40
6 Subjective Well-Being Versus Eudaimonia	40
7 Subjective Well-Being Versus Psychological Well-Being	41
8 Summary	41
References	42

3 Consequences of Hedonic Well-Being, Life Satisfaction, and Eudaimonia	45
1 QOL Effects on Health	45
2 QOL Effects on Achievement and Work	48
3 QOL Effects on Social Relationships, Prosocial Behavior, Trust, and Future Happiness	51
4 How Much Happiness Is Optimal?	52
5 Happiness Is Adaptive	53
6 Summary	55
References	55

Part II Objective Reality and Its Effects on Subjective QOL

4 Effects of Socioeconomic, Political, Cultural, and Other Macro Factors on QOL	63
1 A Theoretical Model Linking Socioeconomic, Political, and Cultural Factors with QOL	63
2 Macro Effects on QOL	65
2.1 Economic Effects on QOL	65
2.2 Political Effects on QOL	70
2.3 Sociocultural Effects on QOL	72
3 Summary	76
References	76

5 Effects of Income and Wealth on Subjective QOL	81
1 Effect of Wealth on Subjective QOL: Individual Level and Short Term	81
2 Effect of Wealth on Subjective QOL: Individual Level and Long Term	85
3 Effect of Wealth on Subjective QOL: National Level and Short Term	86
4 Effect of Wealth on Subjective QOL: National Level and Long Term	88
5 Conclusion	90
References	91

6 Effects of Other Demographic Factors on Subjective QOL	95
1 Effects of Age	95
2 Effects of Gender	97
3 Effects of Marital Status, Family Composition, and Family Life Cycle	98
4 Effects of Education	100
5 Effects of Work-Related Demographics	102
6 Effects of Community-Related Demographics	103
7 Effects of Ethnicity and Minority Status	103
8 Effects of Religious Affiliation	104
9 Summary	104
References	105

7 Effects of Personal Activities on Subjective QOL	109
1 QOL Theories Related to Activities	109
1.1 Classical Conditioning	109
1.2 Activity	110
1.3 Flow	111
1.4 Personal Expressiveness	111
2 Effects of Specific Activities on QOL	113
2.1 Social Activities	113
2.2 Leisure and Recreation Activities	114
2.3 Spiritual and Community Activities	115
2.4 Economic Activities	117
3 Conclusion	118
References	118

8 Effects of Genetics, Health, Biology, the Environment, and Drugs on Subjective QOL	123
1 Effects of Genetics	123
2 Effects of Health Factors	124
3 Effects of Biological/Physiological Factors	126
4 Effects of the Physical Environment	127
5 Effects of Drugs and Substance Abuse	128
6 Toward an Integration of Neurochemical Concepts Related to Subjective QOL	130
7 Toward an Integration of Concepts Related to the Brain Reward Center	132
8 Summary	134
References	135

Part III Subjective Reality and Its Effects on Subjective QOL

9 Effects of Personality on Subjective QOL	141
1 Which Personality Traits Affect Subjective QOL?	141
1.1 Neuroticism and Extraversion	141
1.2 Self-Esteem	142
1.3 Affective Disposition	143
1.3 Affective Disposition	143
1.4 Mindfulness	143
1.5 Character Strengths	145
1.6 Other Personality Traits	146
2 Theories Explaining How Personality Influences Subjective QOL	147
2.1 Instrumental Theory	147
2.2 Temperament Theory	147
2.3 Top-Down Theory	148
2.4 Set-Point Theory	149
2.5 Genotype Theory of Happiness	150
3 Summary	150
References	151

10 Effects of Affect and Cognition on Subjective QOL	155
1 Mood	155
2 Causal Attribution	156
3 Appraisals	157
4 Personal Meaning	159
5 Habituation	161
6 Cognitive Frames	161
7 Summary	162
References	163

11 Effects of Beliefs and Values on Subjective QOL	165
1 Effects of Generalized Beliefs on Subjective QOL	165
1.1 Effects of Positive Views	165
1.2 Effects of Trust	166
1.3 Effects of Forgiveness and Gratitude	166
1.4 Effects of Political Persuasion	167
1.5 Effects of Religious Beliefs	167
1.6 Effects of Social Axioms	168
2 Effects of Personal Values on Subjective QOL	168
2.1 Effects of Individualism-Collectivism Orientation	171
2.2 Effects of Secularism	172
2.3 Effects of Materialism	172
3 Summary	174
References	174

12 Effects of Needs and Need Satisfaction on Subjective QOL	179
1 Concepts and Theories	179
1.1 Needs for Having, Loving, and Being	179
1.2 Needs for Being, Belonging, and Becoming	180
1.3 Physical, Social, and Self-Actualization Needs	180
1.4 The Need for Self-Determination	183
1.5 The Needs for a Pleasant Life, an Engaged Life, and a Meaningful Life	185
1.6 The Human Need for Flourishing	187
1.7 The Need for a Life Purpose	188
2 Summary	189
References	189

13 Effects of Goals on Subjective QOL	191
1 Goal Valence	192
1.1 Effects of Meaningful Goals	192
1.2 Effects of Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goals	193
1.3 Effects of Abstract Versus Concrete Goals	193
1.4 Effects of Hygiene Versus Motivational Goals	194
1.5 Effects of Approach Versus Avoidance Goals	194
1.6 Effects of Goals Related to Deprived Versus Nondeprived Needs	195
1.7 Effects of Autonomous Versus Nonautonomous Goals	196
1.8 Effects of Goals Related to Flow	196
2 Goal Expectancy	197
2.1 Effects of Adaptable Versus Nonadaptable Goals	197
2.2 Effects of Goals That Are Congruent Versus Noncongruent with Cultural Norms	199
2.3 Effects of Goals That Are Congruent Versus Noncongruent with Personal Motives	200
2.4 Effects of Goals That Are Congruent Versus Noncongruent with Personal Resources	201
2.5 Effects of Goals That Are Realistic Versus Nonrealistic	201
2.6 Effects of Goal Conflict	202
3 Goal Implementation and Attainment	202
3.1 Effects of Goal Commitment	204
3.2 Effects of Recognition of Goal Attainment	205
3.3 Effects of Concrete Thinking	205
3.4 Effects of Perceived Goal Progress	205
4 Summary	206
References	206

14 Effects of Self-Concept on Subjective QOL	211
1 Self-Concept Theory	212
2 Effects of Various Self-Concept Dimensions	213
2.1 The Ideal Self	213
2.2 The Social Self	214
2.3 The Deserved Self	215
2.4 The Minimum-Needs Self	216
2.5 The Predicted Self	216
2.6 The Competent Self	217
2.7 The Aspired Self	218
2.8 Self-Concept Integration	218
3 Summary	219
References	219

15 Effects of Social Comparisons on Subjective QOL	223
1 Impact of Social Comparisons	223
2 Motivational Sources of Social Comparisons	224
2.1 Self-Enhancement	225
2.2 Self-Improvement	227
2.3 Self-Identification	228
2.4 Fictitious Occurrences	229
2.5 Integration of Social Comparison Judgments	229
3 Summary	230
References	231

Part IV Life Domains

16 Domain Dynamics	237
1 Life Domain Effects on QOL	237
2 Life Domain Theories	240
2.1 Bottom-Up Spillover Theory	240
2.2 Horizontal Spillover Theory	246
2.3 Segmentation Theory	249
2.4 Compensation Theory	249
2.5 Balance Theory	253
3 Summary and Conclusion	261
References	263

17 Work Well-Being	269
1 What Is Work Well-Being?	269
1.1 Work Well-Being as Meaningful Work	270
1.2 Work Well-Being as an Affective Response Toward the Work Environment	270
1.3 Work Well-Being as Ratio of Positive and Negative Affect Experienced at Work	271
1.4 Work Well-Being as Need Satisfaction Through Organizational Resources	271
1.5 Work Well-Being as Satisfaction in Work Life	272
1.6 Work Well-Being Is a Component of the Broader Employee Well-Being Concept	273
1.7 Job-Specific Well-Being and Context-Free Well-Being	274
1.8 The European Commission Definition of Quality of Work	274
2 Does Work Well-Being Contribute Significantly to Subjective QOL, and If So How?	275
2.1 Domain Satisfaction Theories	276
2.2 Role Theories	279
2.3 Resource Theories	281
2.4 Ego-Involvement Theories	282
2.5 Human Development Theories	283
2.6 Goal Theories	284
3 What Are Other Consequences of Work Well-Being?	285
4 What Are the Predictors of Work Well-Being and Subjective QOL?	286
4.1 The Work Environment	287
4.2 Employee Characteristics	290
4.3 Work-Related Behaviors	291
5 Summary	292
References	293

18 Residential Well-Being	303
1 What Is Residential Well-Being?	303
1.1 Gap Between Actual and Desired Housing and Neighborhood Conditions	304
1.2 Residents’ Attitude Toward Their Living Space	304
1.3 Residents’ Feelings of Gratification from Living in a Specific Place	304
1.4 Residents’ Feelings of Satisfaction with the Community at Large	304
1.5 Residents’ Perceptions/Evaluations/Satisfaction of Community Amenities/Services/Conditions	305
1.6 Perceptions and Evaluations of the Community by Planners	305
1.7 Community Pride	308
1.8 Satisfaction with Dwelling Features	308
2 Does Residential Well-Being Play a Significant Role in Subjective QOL?	308
3 Factors Affecting Residential Well-Being and Subjective QOL	310
3.1 Institutional Factors	310
3.2 Social Factors	311
3.3 Environmental Factors	315
3.4 Economic Factors	318
4 Summary	319
References	319

19 Material Well-Being	325
1 What Is Material Well-Being?	325
1.1 Evaluation of One’s Financial Situation	325
1.2 Evaluation of One’s Standard of Living	326
1.3 Feelings of Financial Security	326
1.4 Objective Indicators of Economic Well-Being	327
1.5 Consumers’ Feelings About Major Goods and Services	327
1.6 Satisfaction with Acquisition of Consumer Goods/Services and Possession of Major Consumer Durables	327
1.7 Satisfaction with Specific Categories of Obtained Goods and Services That Are Purchased Through Local Retail Institutions	328
1.8 Satisfaction with Acquisition, Preparation, Possession, Consumption, Maintenance, and Disposal of Materials Goods	328
1.9 Subjective Well-Being Directly Related to a Product’s Benefits	329
2 Effect of Material Well-Being on Subjective QOL	329
3 Explaining the Material Well-Being Effect on QOL	331
3.1 Bottom-Up Spillover	331
3.2 Top-Down Spillover	333
3.3 Compensation	334
3.4 Self-Determination	334
3.5 Values	335
3.6 Need Deprivation	337
3.7 Social Comparison	337
3.8 Adaptation	338
3.9 Gain Versus Loss	339
3.10 Cognitive Association	339
4 Predictors of Material Well-Being and QOL	339
4.1 Objective Financial Circumstances	340
4.2 Materialism and Compulsive Consumption	342
4.3 Consumption Life Cycle	344
4.4 Consumption Life Satisfaction	345
4.5 Demographics	345
5 Summary and Conclusion	346
References	347

20 Social, Family, and Marital Well-Being	353
1 What Is Social, Family, and Marital Well-Being?	353
1.1 Satisfaction with Social Life	353
1.2 Social Adjustment	354
1.3 Social Capital	354
1.4 Social Support	355
1.5 Family Life Quality	355
1.6 Satisfaction with Family Life	356
1.7 Social and Family Functioning	356
1.8 Family QOL	357
1.9 Relationship Happiness	357
1.10 Involvement in and Quality of Romantic Relationship	357
2 Does Social, Family, and Marital Well-Being Contribute Significantly to Subjective QOL?	358
3 Explaining the Social/Family/Marital Well-Being Effect on Subjective QOL	360
3.1 The Need to Belong	360
3.2 Attachment	361
3.3 The Buffering Effect of Family	361
3.4 Bottom-Up Spillover	362
3.5 Horizontal Spillover	362
3.6 Compensation	362
3.7 Mattering	363
4 Effects of Social/Family/Marital Well-Being on Other Health Outcomes	364
5 Predictors of Social, Family, and Marital Well-Being and Subjective QOL	364
5.1 Social and Family-Related Factors	364
5.2 Individual Difference Factors	366
5.3 Factors Dealing with Conflict Between Family and Work	368
6 Summary	372
References	373

21 Health Well-Being	381
1 What Is Health Well-Being?	381
1.1 Successful Adjustment to Illness	381
1.2 Good Functional Status	382
1.3 Perceptions of Low Illness Symptoms	384
1.4 Satisfaction with Personal Health	384
1.5 Positive Mood and Affect	385
1.6 Satisfaction with Personal Health and Related Life Domains	385
2 Does Health Well-Being Contribute Significantly to Subjective QOL?	387
3 Explaining the Health Well-Being Effect on Subjective QOL	387
3.1 Bottom-Up Spillover Theory	388
3.2 Homeostatic Control Theory	388
4 Predictors of Health Well-Being and Subjective QOL	389
4.1 Personal Health Factors	389
4.2 Health-Care Factors	390
4.3 Psychographics	394
5 Summary	395
References	396

22 Leisure Well-Being	401
1 What Is Leisure Well-Being?	401
1.1 Satisfaction with Leisure Life	401
1.2 Satisfaction with Important Dimensions of Leisure Life	402
1.3 Perceived Recreation Quality	403
1.4 Satisfaction with Leisure Time	403
1.5 Satisfaction with a Specific Leisure Event	403
2 Does Leisure Well-Being Contribute to Subjective QOL?	405
3 Theories Explaining the Link Between Leisure Well-Being and QOL	406
3.1 Physiology and Genetics	406
3.2 Social Motivation	406
3.3 Effectance Motivation	407
3.4 Intrinsic Motivation and Flow	407
3.5 Telic Versus Paratelic States	408
3.6 Sensation Seeking	409
3.7 Activity	409
3.8 Bottom-Up Spillover	409
4 Predictors of Leisure/Subjective Well-Being	410
4.1 Activity Factors	411
4.2 Time Factors	411
4.3 Personality Factors	411
4.4 Situational Factors	412
5 Summary	413
References	414

23 Other Domains Varying in Salience	417
1 Spiritual Well-Being	417
1.1 What Is Spiritual Well-Being?	418
1.2 Does Spiritual Well-Being Affect Subjective Aspects of QOL?	419
1.3 Are There Other Consequences of Spiritual Well-Being?	421
1.4 How Does Spiritual Well-Being Influence Subjective Well-Being?	422
1.5 What Are the Determinants of Spiritual Well-Being and QOL?	423
1.6 Conclusion	424
2 Political and National Well-Being	424
3 Environmental Well-Being	426
4 Educational Well-Being	427
4.1 What Is Educational Well-Being?	427
4.2 What Is the Relationship Between Educational Well-Being and Life Satisfaction?	429
4.3 What Are Possible Sources of Educational Well-Being?	430
5 Sexual Well-Being	431
6 Summary	432
References	433

Part V Population Segments and QOL

24 Children, Youth, and College Students and QOL	441
1 What Is QOL for Children, Youth, and College Students?	441
1.1 QOL of Children of Preschool Age	441
1.2 QOL of Children of Elementary School Age	442
1.3 QOL of Children of Middle School Age	442
1.4 QOL of Adolescents	445
1.5 QOL of College Students	445
2 Explaining Subjective Well-Being Among Children and Youth	446
2.1 Social Development Theory	446
2.2 Attachment Theory	447
2.3 Ecological Theory	447
3 Factors Affecting the QOL of Children, Youth, and College Students	448
3.1 Situational Factors	449
3.2 Personality Factors	449
3.3 Psychographic Factors	453
3.4 Social Factors	456
3.5 Socioeconomic and Sociocultural Factors	459
4 Indicators of Children’s Well-Being	460
5 Summary	460
References	463

25 Elderly and QOL	469
1 What Is QOL for the Elderly?	469
1.1 Global Judgments of Life Satisfaction	470
1.2 Affective and Cognitive Judgments of Well-Being	472
1.3 Satisfaction of Salient Life Domains	472
1.4 Satisfaction of Needs Salient to the Elderly	474
2 Factors Affecting the QOL of the Elderly	477
2.1 Effects of Health-Related Factors	477
2.2 Effects of Personal Values	478
2.3 Effects of Social Factors	479
2.4 Effects of Socioeconomic Factors	481
2.5 Effects of Residential Factors	482
3 Summary	482
References	483

26 The QOL of Women	487
1 What Is QOL for Women?	487
2 QOL of Women	488
3 Explaining Women’s QOL	489
3.1 A Biological Explanation	489
3.2 A Psychological Explanation	490
3.3 A Cultural Explanation	490
3.4 A Psychographic Explanation	491
3.5 A Health-Care Explanation	491
3.6 A Socioeconomic Explanation	492
3.7 A Social Role Explanation	492
4 What Are Important Factors That Influence Women’s QOL?	492
4.1 Family and Cultural Factors	493
4.2 Economic and Work-Related Factors	494
4.3 Residential Factors	495
4.4 Sexual and Relationship Factors	497
4.5 Health-Related Factors	498
4.6 Factors Related to the Feminist Movement	498
5 Summary	499
References	500

27 The QOL of Countries	503
1 Comparative Analysis	503
2 Country-Specific Well-Being	505
2.1 China	505
2.2 Japan	507
2.3 South Korea	507
2.4 Hong Kong	508
2.5 Singapore	509
2.6 Taiwan	510
3 Summary	511
References	512

28 Other Population Segments	515
1 The QOL of the Disabled	515
2 The QOL of Drug Addicts	516
3 The QOL of Prostitutes	516
4 The QOL of Emergency Personnel	518
5 The QOL of Immigrants	519
6 The QOL of Teachers	520
7 The QOL of Caregivers	521
8 Summary	522
References	523

Part VI Epilogue

29 Integrative Theories of QOL	529
1 Livability Theory	529
2 Capability Theory	531
3 Stocks and Flows	532
4 The Joyless Economy	534
5 Quality of the Person + Environment	534
6 Homeostasis	535
7 QOL = Happiness, Life Satisfaction, and Absence of Ill-Being	536
8 The Bidirectional Spillover Model	537
9 Dynamic Well-Being	538
10 Ontological Well-Being and the 3P Model	539
11 The Psychology of QOL	540
12 Summary	549
References	552

30 Final Thoughts	555
1 Public Policy Issues	555
2 The Need to Broaden Our View	558
2.1 Happiness Maximization Is Not Enough	558
2.2 The Shortfall of Happiness Research at the Country Level	559
2.3 The Need to Conjoin Subjective Aspects of QOL with Objective Conditions	560
2.4 Conjoining Personal Happiness with Objective/Macrolevel Indicators of Societal Well-Being	561
3 Concluding Remarks	562
4 Summary	566
References	567

Appendix: Measurement Issues	569
1 Examples of Life Satisfaction Measures Employed in Large-Scale National Surveys	569
1.1 The Eurobarometer	569
1.2 American Changing Lives	570
1.3 The British Household Panel Survey	570
1.4 The Canadian General Social Survey	570
1.5 The European Social Values Survey	571
1.6 The German Socio-Economic Panel Survey	571
1.7 The Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey	571
1.8 The Hungarian Household Panel Survey	571
1.9 The International Social Survey Programme	572
1.10 The Latino Barometer	572
1.11 The Midlife in the US Survey	572
1.12 The National Child Development Survey	572
1.13 The National Survey of Families and Households in the USA	573
1.14 The Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey in the USA	573
1.15 The Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey	573
1.16 The Swedish Level of Living Survey	573
1.17 The Swiss Household Panel Survey	574
1.18 The US General Social Survey	574
1.19 The World Values Survey	574
1.20 The Chinese General Social Survey	574
2 Measurement Caveats	574
2.1 Memory Biases	575
2.2 Biases Related to Situational Influences	576
2.3 Biases Related to Interview or Questionnaire Format	576
2.4 Biases Related to Standard of Comparison	577
2.5 Biases Related to Scaling Effects	577
2.6 Biases Related to Mood	577
2.7 Temporal Stability Problems	578
2.8 Biases Related to Social Desirability	579
3 In Defense of Self-Reports and Global Measures of Life Satisfaction	579
References	581

Author Index

585

Subject Index

611